Tyrannosaurus

Description

Tyrannosaurus, communément appelé tyrannosaure, est un genre éteint de dinosaures théropodes appartenant à la famille des Tyrannosauridae et ayant vécu au Campanien et au Maastrichtien, derniers étages du Crétacé, il y a environ 68 à 66 millions d'années, en Amérique du Nord. Tyrannosaurus rex, dont l'étymologie du nom signifie « roi des lézards tyrans », est l'une des plus célèbres espèces de dinosaures. Tyrannosaurus fut l'un des derniers dinosaures non-aviens à avoir vécu jusqu'à l'extinction survenue à la limite Crétacé-Paléogène il y a 66 millions d'années.
Tout comme les autres membres du clade des Tyrannosauridae, Tyrannosaurus était un carnassier bipède doté d'un crâne massif équilibré par une longue queue puissante. Comparés à ses larges membres postérieurs, les bras du Tyrannosaurus étaient petits et atrophiés et ne portaient que deux doigts griffus. Même si d'autres théropodes rivalisaient voire dépassaient Tyrannosaurus en taille, il est le plus grand Tyrannosauridae connu et l'un des plus grands carnivores terrestres ayant existé sur la planète, avec une longueur de plus de 13,2 mètres,, 4 mètres à hauteur de hanches et un poids pouvant atteindre 8 tonnes (pour les spécimens les plus lourds). Plus grand carnivore terrestre de son temps, le tyrannosaure a été un superprédateur au sommet de la chaîne alimentaire, chassant notamment des herbivores de grande taille tels que les Hadrosauridae et les Ceratopsidae, même si certains experts suggèrent qu'il était avant tout charognard.
Une cinquantaine de spécimens fossiles de Tyrannosaurus rex a été recensée, dont moins de la moitié sont presque complets. Un laboratoire est parvenu à déminéraliser des restes de tissus mous et de protéines à partir d'un échantillon d'au moins l'un de ces spécimens. Cette abondance de matériaux a permis de nombreuses avancées dans bien des aspects de l'histoire et de la biologie de cette espèce. Si certains points sont consensuels, d'autres restent controversés, tels que ses habitudes alimentaires, sa physiologie ou sa vitesse de pointe. Sa relation de parenté avec le genre Tarbosaurus est sujette à débat : si la majorité des spécialistes considèrent T. rex comme la seule espèce du genre Tyrannosaurus (ce qui validerait le taxon Tarbosaurus bataar, que l'on a trouvé en Asie et dont l'anatomie est quasiment identique),, certains chercheurs considèrent que les spécimens asiatiques identifiés comme Tarbosaurus bataar appartiennent en réalité au genre Tyrannosaurus (ce qui ferait synonymiser les deux genres et signifierait que l'espèce asiatique doit être nommée Tyrannosaurus bataar). La synonymie de plusieurs autres genres a déjà été établie, comme Manospondylus ou Dynamosaurus, dont les spécimens sont tous, de nos jours, considérés comme appartenant en réalité au genre Tyrannosaurus.

Information(s)

Source: The Paleobiology Database

Attibution: Osborn 1905⁹²⁵⁹
Statut: Valide
Nom commun: Reptile-tyran
Environnement de découverte: terrestrial
Mode de vie: terrestrial
Mode de locomotion: actively mobile
Vision: ?
Alimentation: carnivore
Mode de reprodution: oviparous, dispersal=direct/internal,mobile
Classification: Tyrannosaurini >> Tyrannosaurinae >> Tyrannosauridae >> Tyrannosauroidea >> Coelurosauria >> Tetanurae >> Averostra >> Neotheropoda >> Theropoda >> Dinosauria
Période: Campanian - Maastrichtian (de -83.60 Ma à -66.00 Ma)

Espèce(s):
- Albertosaurus megagracilis (Synonyme subjectif de Tyrannosaurus rex)¹⁰³⁵⁰
- Aublysodon molnaris (Synonyme subjectif de Tyrannosaurus rex)¹⁰³⁵⁰
- Dynamosaurus imperiosus (Synonyme subjectif de Tyrannosaurus rex)⁹²⁵⁹
- Manospondylus gigas (Synonyme subjectif de Tyrannosaurus rex)¹⁵⁶⁸⁴
- Nanotyrannus lancensis (Synonyme subjectif de Tyrannosaurus rex)¹⁴⁵⁹²
- Tyrannosaurus imperator (Synonyme subjectif de Tyrannosaurus rex)⁸²²⁹⁶
- Tyrannosaurus lanpingensis (nomen dubium, voir Tyrannosauroidea)¹³³⁶⁰
- Tyrannosaurus luanchuanensis (Synonyme subjectif de Tarbosaurus bataar)⁹²⁵⁶
- Tyrannosaurus mcraeensis (Valide)⁸⁷⁴⁰⁷
- Tyrannosaurus regina (Synonyme subjectif de Tyrannosaurus rex)⁸²²⁹⁶
- Tyrannosaurus rex (Valide)⁹²⁵⁹
- Tyrannosaurus turpanensis (nomen dubium, voir Tyrannosaurus)⁵²¹⁴⁰
- Tyrannosaurus zhuchengensis (nomen dubium, voir Tyrannosaurinae)³⁵⁷¹⁷

Specimen(s):

Tyrannosaurus rex: AMNH 5027 - skull
Tyrannosaurus rex: holotype NMC 9380 =AMNH 973 - tibia, femur, humerus, scapula
Tyrannosaurus rex: FMNH PR2081 - fibula (both) , tibia (left) , ulna (right) , radius (right) , humerus (right) , scapulacoracoid (both) , skull, femur (both)
Albertosaurus megagracilis subjective synonym of Tyrannosaurus rex: LACM 23845 - ulna
Tyrannosaurus rex: holotype Amer. Mus. No. 973 - femur, scapula, tibia (left)
Tyrannosaurus rex: CM 9780 (AMNH 5027) - fibula, tibia, femur
Tyrannosaurus rex: TMP 81.12.1 - fibula, tibia, femur
Tyrannosaurus bataar recombined as Tarbosaurus bataar: - ?
Détail des Spécimens

Référence	Type	Partie	Côté	Dimension (en cm)	Lieu de découverte	Commentaires
AMNH 5027		skull		length: 1355	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
NMC 9380 =AMNH 973	holotype	tibia		length: 1140	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
NMC 9380 =AMNH 973	holotype	femur		length: 1280	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
NMC 9380 =AMNH 973	holotype	humerus		length: 360	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
NMC 9380 =AMNH 973	holotype	scapula		length: 950	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
FMNH PR2081		fibula	both	width: 105, length: 1032	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	AP midshaft width
FMNH PR2081		tibia	left	width: 165, length: 1143	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	length without tarsus and mediolateral midshaft width
FMNH PR2081		ulna	right	length: 214	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
FMNH PR2081		radius	right	width: 27, length: 173	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	midshaft width
FMNH PR2081		humerus	right	width: 56, length: 385	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	midshaft width
FMNH PR2081		scapulacoracoid	both	width: 136	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
FMNH PR2081		skull		width: 945, length: 1393	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
FMNH PR2081		femur	both	length: 1314	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	see also Erickson and Makovicky 2004
LACM 23845		ulna		length: 131	Collection: Engdahl Ranch (LACM)- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
Amer. Mus. No. 973	holotype	femur		width: 180, length: 1300	Collection: Quarry No. 1, Sieber Ranch (AMNH)- Lieu: US, Montana, Dawson	width is mid-diameter
Amer. Mus. No. 973	holotype	scapula		length: 950	Collection: Quarry No. 1, Sieber Ranch (AMNH)- Lieu: US, Montana, Dawson
Amer. Mus. No. 973	holotype	tibia	left	length: 1140	Collection: Quarry No. 1, Sieber Ranch (AMNH)- Lieu: US, Montana, Dawson	originally reported as 1118 mm; figure revised by Osborn 1906
CM 9780 (AMNH 5027)		fibula		length: 1163, circumference: 154	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
CM 9780 (AMNH 5027)		tibia		length: 1199, circumference: 468	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
CM 9780 (AMNH 5027)		femur		length: 1273, circumference: 540	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
TMP 81.12.1		fibula		length: 982, circumference: 147	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
TMP 81.12.1		tibia		length: 1173, circumference: 435	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield
TMP 81.12.1		femur		length: 1289, circumference: 497	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	said to be 1284 mm by Erickson et al. 2004
		fibula		length: 681, circumference: 84	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	unnumbered specimen
		tibia		length: 767, circumference: 261	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	unnumbered specimen
		femur		length: 771, circumference: 281	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	unnumbered specimen
		fibula		length: 724, circumference: 95	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	unnumbered specimen
		tibia		length: 799, circumference: 281	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	unnumbered specimen
		femur		length: 854, circumference: 312	Collection: Big Dry East Quarry- Lieu: US, Montana, Garfield	unnumbered specimen

Autre(s) Taxon(s) trouvés dans la litterature:
- Tyrannosaurus bataar recombined as Tarbosaurus bataar
- Gorgosaurus lancensis subjective synonym of Tyrannosaurus rex
- Nanotyrannus subjective synonym of Tyrannosaurus
Découverte(s): 95 occcurrences
Ouvrir - Fermer
- Canada
  - Alberta
    - ?
      - Formation Dinosaur Park
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁵⁷²¹
      - Formation Scollard
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁴²¹⁸
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁴²⁰⁵
      - Formation Willow Creek
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme Tyrannosaurus regina: ? ⁸²²⁹⁶
  - Saskatchewan
    - ?
      - Formation Frenchman
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ⁸¹⁸⁰⁶
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹⁴⁶²⁷
- Chine
  - Henan
    - Luanchuan
      - Formation Qiupa
        Tarbosaurus bataar identifié comme Tyrannosaurus n. sp. luanchuanensis: ? ⁹²⁵⁶
  - Shandong
    - Chucheng
      - Formation Hongtuya
        Tyrannosaurinae identifié comme Tyrannosaurus n. sp. zhuchengensis: ? ³⁵⁷¹⁷
  - Xinjiang
    - Shanshan
      - Formation Subashi
        Tyrannosaurus identifié comme Tyrannosaurus n. sp. turpanensis: ? ⁵²¹⁴⁰
  - Yunnan
    - Lanping
      - Formation Jingxing
        Tyrannosauroidea identifié comme Tyrannosaurus n. sp. lanpingensis: ? ¹³³⁶⁰
- Mongolie
  - Omnogov
    - ?
      - Formation Nemegt
        Tarbosaurus bataar identifié comme Tyrannosaurus n. sp. bataar: ? ⁵⁹¹³⁷
- Mexique
  - Sonora
    - ?
      - Formation Lomas Coloradas
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁸²⁶²⁰
- Russie
  - Volgograd
    - Kalachyovsky
      - Formation ?
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ¹⁰²¹⁹
- États-Unis
  - Colorado
    - Arapahoe
      - Formation Denver
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁵¹⁵²⁰
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹³²⁶⁶
    - Jefferson
      - Formation Denver
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ¹³²⁶⁶
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹³²⁶⁶
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹³²⁶⁶
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹³²⁶⁶
    - Weld
      - Formation Laramie
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁷¹⁷
  - Montana
    - Carter
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ⁶³⁴⁸⁰
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁹¹³⁰⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme Gorgosaurus n. sp. lancensis: ? ¹⁴⁵⁹²
    - Custer
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ²⁹⁸³¹
    - Dawson
      - Formation Lance
        Tyrannosaurus rex: Amer. Mus. No. 973: femur, scapula, tibia (left) ⁹²⁵⁹
    - Fergus
      - Formation Judith River
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ²³³⁶¹
    - Garfield
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ¹⁷³⁰⁸
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ⁵³⁰²⁰
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹⁷⁴⁶⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁶²⁸³⁸
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁵⁴⁰⁶⁴
        Tyrannosaurus rex: AMNH 5027: skull CM 9780 (AMNH 5027): fibula, tibia, femur ⁵⁴⁰⁶⁴
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme Aublysodon n. sp. molnaris: ? ¹⁰³⁵⁰
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme Albertosaurus n. sp. megagracilis: LACM 23845: ulna ¹⁰³⁵⁰
    - McCone
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ²³³³
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme Tyrannosaurus n. sp. regina: ? ⁸²²⁹⁶
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme cf. Gorgosaurus lancensis: ? ²³³³
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme Tyrannosaurus regina: ? ⁸²²⁹⁶
    - Powder River
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁶¹⁰⁹⁵
      - Formation Lance
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ⁴⁶³³⁰
  - New Mexico
    - San Juan
      - Formation Fruitland/Kirtland
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ⁴⁶³³⁰
      - Formation Kirtland
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ³¹⁷¹⁵
    - Sierra
      - Formation Hall Lake
        Tyrannosaurus mcraeensis: ? ⁸⁷⁴⁰⁷
  - North Dakota
    - Bowman
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
    - Emmons
      - Formation Fox Hills
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ⁸⁵⁶⁹⁵
    - Slope
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
    - Slope County
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁴²⁵³⁶
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁴²⁵³⁶
  - South Dakota
    - ?
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme Tyrannosaurus n. sp. imperator: ? ⁸²²⁹⁶
    - Butte
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁸⁰⁶²⁵
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme Nanotyrannus lancensis: ? ⁸⁰⁶²⁵
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme Tyrannosaurus imperator: ? ⁸²²⁹⁶
    - Corson
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ²³⁴⁴⁴
    - Harding
      - Formation Hell Creek
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ⁶⁶¹⁶⁴
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ⁶⁶¹⁶⁴
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁸²²⁹⁶
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹¹⁷⁴⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme Tyrannosaurus regina: ? ⁸²²⁹⁶
  - Wyoming
    - Carbon
      - Formation Ferris
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ²²³⁶
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ²²³⁶
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ²²³⁶
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ²²³⁶
    - Niobrara
      - Formation Lance
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ¹⁷³¹³
        Tyrannosaurus identifié comme Nanotyrannus sp.: ? ⁸⁴⁸⁸⁵
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁸⁰³
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ¹⁰⁶⁰⁸
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁸⁰³
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁸⁰³
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁴⁶²⁰⁷
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁷³⁸⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁸¹⁸⁸⁶
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme n. gen. Dynamosaurus n. sp. imperiosus: ? ⁹²⁵⁹
        Tyrannosaurus rex identifié comme Nanotyrannus lancensis: ? ⁸⁴⁸⁸⁵
    - Park
      - Formation Lance
        Tyrannosaurus rex: ? ⁴⁸⁵⁶⁹
    - Teton
      - Formation Harebell
        Tyrannosaurus: ? ⁸⁵⁹⁷⁶
Historique des modifications:

Pas de modification récente.

Publication(s)

La base comprend 50 publication(s).

Source: The Paleobiology Database

↑^{1 2 3 4 5}H. F. Osborn. 1905. Tyrannosaurus and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 21(14):259-265
↑^{1 2 3 4}G. S. Paul. 1988. Predatory Dinosaurs of the World. Simon & Schuster, New York
↑¹E. D. Cope. 1892. Fourth note on the Dinosauria of the Laramie. The American Naturalist 26:756-758
↑^{1 2}C. W. Gilmore. 1946. A new carnivorous dinosaur from the Lance Formation of Montana. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 106(13):1-19
↑^{1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9}G. S. Paul, W. S. Persons, and J. Van Raalte. 2022. The tyrant lizard king, queen and emperor: multiple lines of morphological and stratigraphic evidence support subtle evolution and probable speciation within the North American genus Tyrannosaurus. Evolutionary Biology 49(2):156-179 (https://doi.org/10.1007/s11692-022-09561-5)
↑^{1 2}Z. Dong. 1992. Dinosaurian Faunas of China. China Ocean Press, Beijing
↑^{1 2}Z. Dong. 1979. Cretaceous dinosaurs of Hunan, China. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Red Beds of South China: Selected Papers from the "Cretaceous-Tertiary Workshop", Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology & Nanjing Institute of Paleontology (eds.), Science Press, Nanxiong, China
↑^{1 2}S. G. Dalman, M. A. Loewen, and R. A. Pyron, S. E. Jasinski, D. E. Malinzak, S. G. Lucas, A. R. Fiorilllo, P. J. Currie, N. R. Longrich. 2024. A giant tyrannosaur from the Campanian–Maastrichtian of southern North America and the evolution of tyrannosaurid gigantism. Scientific Reports 13:22124:1-11 (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-47011-0)
↑^{1 2}R.-j. Zhai, J.-j. Zheng, and Y.-s. Tong. 1978. [Stratigraphy of the mammal-bearing Tertiary of the Turfan Basin, Sinkiang]. Reports of Paleontological Expedition to Sinkiang. III. Permian and Triassic Vertebrate Fossils of Dzungaria Basin and Tertiary Stratigraphy and Mammalian Fossils of Turfan Basin 13:68-81
↑^{1 2}D. W. E. Hone, K. Wang, and C. Sullivan, X. Zhao, S. Chen, D. Li, S. Ji, Q. Ji, X. Xu. 2011. A new, large tyrannosaurine theropod from the Upper Cretaceous of China. Cretaceous Research 32:495-503 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2011.03.005)
↑¹J. M. Wood, R.G. Thomas, and J. Visser. 1988. Fluvial processes and vertebrate taphonomy: the Upper Cretaceous Judith River Formation, south-central Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 66:127-143 (https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(88)90085-5)
↑¹D. A. Eberth, P. J. Currie, and D. B. Brinkman, M. J. Ryan, D. R. Braman, J. D. Gardner, V. D. Lam, D. N. Spivak, A. G. Neuman. 2001. Alberta's dinosaurs and other fossil vertebrates: Judith River and Edmonton groups (Campanian-Maastrichtian). In C. L. Hill (ed), Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, 61st Annual Meeting, Bozeman. Guidebook for the Field Trips: Mesozoic and Cenozoic Paleontology in the Western Plains and Rocky Mountains, Museum of the Rockies Occasional Paper 3:49-75
↑¹D. A. Russell. 1970. Tyrannosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of western Canada. National Museum of Natural Sciences, Publications in Paleontology 1:1-34 (https://doi.org/10.1139/e72-031)
↑¹D. B. Brinkman, C. Libke, and R. C. McKellar, S. Gasilov, C. M. Somers. 2023. A new pan-kinosternid, Leiochelys tokaryki, gen. et sp. nov., from the late Maastrichtian Frenchman formation, Saskatchewan Canada. The Anatomical Record 306(6):1481-1500 (https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.24952)
↑¹T. T. Tokaryk and H. N. Bryant. 2004. The fauna from the Tyrannosaurus rex excavation, Frenchman Formation (Late Maastrichtian), Saskatchewan. Summary of Investigations 2004, Volume 1. Saskatchewan Geological Survey, Saskatchewan Industry Resources, Miscellaneous Report 2004-4 1:1-12
↑¹E. A. Maleev. 1955. [Giant carnivorous dinosaurs of Mongolia]. Doklady, Academy of Sciences USSR 1955, 104(4):634-637
↑¹Á. A. Ramírez-Velasco and R. Hernández-Rivera. 2015. Diversity of Late Cretaceous dinosaurs from Mexico. Boletín Geológico y Minero 126(1):63-108
↑¹A. O. Averianov and A. A. Yarkov. 2004. Carnivorous dinosaurs (Saurischia, Theropoda) from the Maastrichtian of the Volga-Don interfluve, Russia. Paleontological Journal 38(1):78-82
↑¹J. R. Horner and D. Lessem. 1993. The Complete T. rex (https://doi.org/10.1093/nq/40-4-560)
↑^{1 2 3 4 5}K. Carpenter and D. B. Young. 2002. Late Cretaceous dinosaurs from the Denver Basin, Colorado. Rocky Mountain Geology 37(2):237-254 (https://doi.org/10.2113/11)
↑¹K. Carpenter. 1979. Vertebrate fauna of the Laramie Formation (Maestrichtian), Weld County, Colorado. Contributions to Geology, University of Wyoming 17(1):37-49
↑¹W. G. Joyce, T. R. Lyson, and S. Williams. 2016. New cranial material of Gilmoremys lancensis (Testudines, Trionychidae) from the Hell Creek Formation of southeastern Montana, U.S.A. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 36(6):e1225748:1-10 (https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2016.1225748)
↑¹H. N. Thomas, D. W. E. Hone, and T. Gomes, J. E. Peterson. 2025. Infernodrakon hastacollis gen. et sp. nov., a new azhdarchid pterosaur from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana, and the pterosaur diversity of Maastrichtian North America. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology (e2442476) (https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2024.2442476)
↑¹J. C. Mathews, S. L. Brusatte, and S. A. Williams, M. D. Henderson. 2009. The first Triceratops bonebed and its implications for gregarious behavior. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 29(1):286-290 (https://doi.org/10.1671/039.029.0126)
↑¹M. A. Urban and M. C. Lamanna. 2006. Evidence of a giant tyrannosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous (?Campanian) of Montana. Annals of Carnegie Museum 75(4):231-235 (https://doi.org/10.2992/0097-4463(2006)75[231:eoagtd]2.0.co;2)
↑¹M. B. Goodwin, W. A. Clemens, and J. R. Horner, K. Padian. 2006. The smallest known Triceratops skull: new observations on ceratopsid cranial anatomy and ontogeny. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 26(1):103-112 (https://doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[103:tsktsn]2.0.co;2)
↑¹J. R. MacDonald. 1966. The search for the king of the tyrant lizards. Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History Quarterly 4(3):18-22
↑¹R. E. Molnar. 1980. An albertosaur from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. Journal of Paleontology 54(1):102-108
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